Behavioural Approach Essay

The behavioural approach suggests that all behaviour is learnt. This includes abnormal behaviours. Behaviours can be learned through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or modelling. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, where learning results from the association of stimuli with reflex responses. Classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of many abnormal behaviours, including phobias, anxiety disorders and taste aversions. An example of how classical conditioning might result in a phobia is the case of Little Albert. In an experiment carried out by Watson and Rayner, a 11 month old boy called ‘little Albert’ was taught to fear a white rat through associating it with a loud noise, a symbol behind his head. Each time he played with the rat the symbol would be hit which caused him to cry. Eventually he would do so even without the noise due to the classical conditioning theory. This research however, would not receive approval from an ethics committee today because it would be seen as unethical. Making the baby cry deliberately and teaching him to fear the rat would be seen as wrong because it could cause distress and would go against ‘little Alberts’ human rights. The theory of operant conditioning was proposed by Skinner. Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of actions. Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be repeated. Actions which have a bad outcome (punishment) will not be repeated. Operant conditioning explains how abnormal behaviours might be maintained. This could be through positive reinforcement; behaviours which have a good outcome by bringing some sort of reward are said to be positively reinforced. On the other hand it could be down to negative reinforcement which is behaviours which have a good outcome by removing something unpleasant are said to be negatively reinforced. Finally, abnormal behaviours could also be learnt through modelling or social learning, which is learning through observation of an individual. What happens is simply an individual models the behaviour and the observer imitates the model. A strength of the behavioural approach is that it can be experimentally tested. The principles of learning have been and continue to be tested empirically in a laboratory. The focus on observable behaviour means it can be objectively measured. A further strength is that unlike the psychodynamic approach, it doesn’t require delving into the past, which is problematic because it could unearth traumatic experiences which can produce unreliable data. However, those who support the psychodynamic approach suggests the behavioural model only focuses on symptoms, not on the underlying causes of abnormal behaviour. Freudians claim it treats the symptoms while ignoring the root cause of the problem. Therefore it cannot work as the problem will just represent itself with different symptoms. Whereas, the biological approach cannot explain cultural differences in abnormality such as culture-bound syndromes, a strength of the behavioural approach is that it can account for this because It accounts for cultural differences because it recognises the importance of the environment in shaping behaviour. While behavioural treatments are often effective for certain disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and phobias, they have not been found to be effective for many other disorders and have also often been criticised for being unethical because treatment is often painful and uncomfortable and is sometimes imposed on individuals without their consent. The behavioural approach is accused of being reductionist and simplistic. This is because it’s a simple approach with connections of stimulus. It neglects the influence of cognitions (The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought and experience). A further limitation is that much behaviourist research involves animal studies. While behaviourists argue that humans are fundamentally the same as non-human animals, others would argue that the greater complexity of the human mind makes it difficult to generalise findings from animal studies to humans. Overall the behaviourist approach shows all behaviour to be learnt through our experiences. It states that this learning can either be learnt through classical or operant condition and also the social learning theory. It can be experimentally tested and proven which makes the approach credible however it can be seen just to treat the symptoms of a abnormal behaviour rather than looking at the cause.

Obesity in Older Adults Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Obesity in Older Adults - Essay Example Introduction Obesity can be simply referred to a medical condition caused by excessive accumulation of body fat, which can eventually cause adverse effects on one’s health. To define, â€Å"obesity is an excess of body fat that frequently results in a significant impairment of health.† (Das, 2010, p.44). Although people use the terms obesity and overweight interchangeably, in fact, obesity and overweight are two distinct physical conditions which have already been clearly defined using scientific standards. Body Mass Index (BMI) is the common tool used to identify whether or not a person’s body fat is excessive. According to BMI standards, an individual is said to be overweight when his BMI lies between the ranges of 25-29.9. The person becomes obese when his BMI goes beyond the range 30. Evidently, obesity has become a major health issue among older adults. According to Villareal et al (as cited in Newman, 2009), the prevalence of obesity in people between the a ge range 50-69 increased by 56% in 2000 whereas in people above the age 70 it increased by 36%, since 1991. Causes of Obesity The relationship between energy consumption and expenditure is the major determinant of the body-fat mass. Medical practitioners opine that obesity occurs when an individual consumes more calories (in the form of food) than what he actually needs. People require calories not only to sustain life, but also to maintain a satisfactory body weight. However, studies point to the fact that energy expenditure in 50-65 year old age group considerably declines and therefore likelihood of obesity increases as one becomes old. It has also been identified that hormonal changes in older adults (65 years of age and older) during aging may result in excessive accumulation of fat. Various changes associated with aging, including resistance to leptin, contribute to older adulthood obesity. As Newman (2009) argues, genetic features, socio-environmental factors, and several oth er elements contribute to obesity. Evidently, heredity is one of the major determinants of obesity. In other words, biological inheritance plays a significant role in fat variations. The researchers like Bouchard established that genotype greatly influences visceral fat. Since an individual’s type of food choices, level of physical activity, and other lifestyle behaviors are influenced by his surrounding environment, socio-environmental factors greatly affect his body fat levels. To illustrate, increasing â€Å"eating out† food trends in Western countries directly lead to the consumption of excess fat content food and thereby obesity. While analyzing the global obesity data, it is obvious that obesity is more prevalent in Western countries, and especially in the United States. Several other factors including lack of sleep and continuous use of drugs also cause obesity. Some recent studies claim that issues such as joint pain and decreased mobility are also potential co ntributory factors to obesity as they cause decreased activity and thereby a proportionate decline in energy expenditure in older adults. Symptoms of Obesity As discussed earlier, a BMI of over 30 is the primary symptom of obesity. Large body frame is another notable symptom of obesity in older adults. Adults with obesity would face difficulties in doing their daily activities. In addition, breathlessness is another noticeable symptom

Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 8

Terrorism - Essay Example In an attempt to understand terrorism and integrate the protection against terrorism in the laws, different governments and agencies have come up with the definition of terrorism to help in designing intervention against the vise. This paper will analyze some of the definitions of terrorism and provide a critique to the definitions in an attempt to ensure the definitions are in conformity with the current socio-economic changes and the dynamics in technological advancements. Even before the 9/11 attack, there had been debates concerning extremism, however, following the 9/11 attack, the aftermath propelled the definition of terrorism into the forefront of the contemporary consciousness. Nevertheless, despite the public spotlight on the actions of terrorists, there has not been a concrete and a universally accepted definition of terrorism, thus the definition of terrorism varies from one state to another and between different law enforcement agencies. In the current world, national security is of paramount importance; hence, the political and the legal systems need to have a universal way of definition of terrorism to help in designing effective counter-terrorism strategies. Due to lack of a universally accepted way of defining terrorism, the international community cannot strengthen their cooperation in the fight against the vise since different definitions results to different priorities in the fight against terrorism (Sandler, 2011). Terrorism can be viewed from three parameters; the cause, the means of attack and the perpetrators. Focusing on a single parameter is not adequate to the definition of terrorism since terrorism is multidimensional, fluid and complex. The diversity in the three parameters used in the definition of terrorism makes it difficult to formulate a universally accepted definition. Some of the reasons why the application of the three parameters has

Gran Torino Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Gran Torino - Movie Review Example The beginning of the movie shows Walt Kowalski as a loner, whose wife has recently died leaving him alone in a neighborhood which is gradually being filled heterogeneous working-class ethnic minorities. In such a scenario, the American flag hoisted in front of his house and his meticulous mowing of his lawn maintaining boundaries are suggestive of the strict boundaries Walt has in his mind. He is strictly American, who drinks Pabst Blue Ribbon beer, drives a vintage Gran Torino and hates Land Cruiser and Hmong people. He refers to his Hmong neighbors as, "swamp rats" and "barbarians". He even doesnt mind closing the door on Thaos face when the later turns up at his door asking for jumper cables. However, his endeavor to save his lawn one night accidentally saves Thaos life and leads to a battery of interactions between the Lor family and himself. Initially reluctant to take the relationship with his neighbor any forward after that night, Walt throws away all the gifts and flowers that the Hmong neighbors leave at his doorstep as their mark of gratitude towards the man who saved their child. On one hand, this scene shows how the Hmong culture pays respect to a person who has helped them, on the other hand, it also shows how Walt is not ready to accept gratitude for a deed that he never actually intended to do. Walt only tried to keep people out of his lawn. However, he actually saves Sue from being harassed by three colored boys in a desolate area. It is Sue who introduces Walt to Hmong culture by enlightening him with the fact that, Hmong is a race of hill people. The party scene at Lors house actually shows Walts adaption to a new culture which till date he had no idea about. The audience along with Walt comes to know that Hmong think a persons soul resides on his head and should never be touched. They also consider it rude to make eye contact while talking and would most likely be found smiling while being

Nursing Shortage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing Shortage - Essay Example he trend of nursing shortage in the United States of America, forecasts suggests that the situation is only going to worsen unless steps to arrest the decline in the attractiveness of the nursing profession and reduced the stress on nursing professionals are taken on an urgent basis (Buerhas, Donelan, Ulrich, Norman & Dittus, 2005). The nursing shortage in the United States of America is a matter of serious concern, for according to Shirey, 2006, the United States of America is in the midst of one of the most crippling nursing shortages in its history, with the projections of this shortfall in nursing to rise to twenty percent of the demand for nursing professionals by 2020, which in sheer numbers means that there will be a shortfall of as many as 800,000 registered nurses, which is a staggering figure. These figures on the shortage of nurses experienced in every area of nursing care requirement is bound to rise given that nearly sixty percent of the current nursing professionals may retire by 2009. The possibility of the shortfall in nursing professionals being made good through new registered nurses (RN) coming through the education programs for nursing in Iowa is dismal given that the admissions to the nursing programs in Iowa have been dropping rapidly for more than a decade. This is the grim reality of the nursing shortage in Iowa (Nursing Shortage Fact Sheet). The shortage of nurses in Iowa has implications on health care in Iowa. For the healthcare sector it means that the quality of health care provided to healthcare seekers in Iowa is likely to be deficient, affecting the standards of health care in Iowa. To the medical professionals the shortage of nursing implies that some of the functions in providing treatment and management of diseases normally handed over to nursing professionals will shift to them increasing their workload. To the citizens of Iowa the shortage of nurses means that there will be nursing care will not measure up to their

Licensure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Licensure - Essay Example According to Guido (2014), the scope of registered nurses is outlined by the Nursing Practice Act (NPA). For this reason, it is necessary for nurses to be aware of various clauses documented in the NPA because they indicate the scope of their activities. Of more importance, the regulations also stipulate factors that determine the working conditions for nurses (Bae, 2012). Nurses should also be aware of the implications of the violating the NPA policies. Like in other professions guided by standard practices, nurses are subjected to varying forms of punishment in the event of violating NPA. According to NCSBN (2011), incidences of malpractices violating the NPA are reported to the Boards of Nursing (BON) in the respective jurisdictions. Investigations into the concerned issues are done, and convicted nurses are subjected to legal prosecution process. Therefore, nurses should be aware that their licensures can be questioned or even revoked following the violations of NPA. Lastly, licensed nurses should be aware that they can perform activities beyond their scope of RN practice. According to Guido (2014), nurses can perform activities beyond their scope based on standards developed by the nursing, medicine and administration. In addition, nurses should be aware that additional factors such as status of healthcare administration can affect their effectiveness in service delivery (Auerbach, Staiger, Muench & Buerhaus, 2012). In conclusion, nurses should be aware of various factors affecting their licensures. In particular, nurses are subjected to various regulations that oversee the quality of their services. In addition, nurses are given additional mandates, such as healthcare administration and performance of activities beyond their usual scope after being licensed. Auerbach, D. I., Staiger, D. O., Muench, U., &

Technology and Innovation Essay Example for Free

Technology and Innovation Essay According to Sakiki Fukada-Parr the prominent author of a UNDP report on technology and development suggests, electronic communications help make societies less hierarchical. He quotes no one can see the cut of your suit, and no secretary blocks your path to the ministers office. Junior employees who would never have dared knock on a chief executives door might send him an idea electronically. (The Economist (US), Nov 10, 2001) Cetron Davies, [2001]) believes businesses have come to rely on technology for increased production efficiency and more appropriate communication operations. Competition is mounting in the business world and organisations must take advantage of the latest technology in order to improve their business functions. Organisations must change the way they act, think and operate internally as their work environment becomes more technologically advanced. All businesses across the world have sufficient communications tools that make global management much easier. Devices such as e-mail, fax machines and satellite communication are all tools that enable managers to communicate at an extremely high pace. (Heiko [1989]) suggests that technology implementation will be heavily influenced by cultural factors, such as technological advances between foreign operations. He observed that Just-In-Time approach of inventory management has been favourably received in Japan, leading to considerable savings. However, this is not the case in other countries and believes this is down to unique cultural conditions in Japan such as concern for space, and a deep group oriented devotion to duty, all of which match the requirements of (JIT ) techniques. In conclusion (Heiko [1989]) states that the Japanese culture can provide a environment where JIT techniques can expand and develop. (Klien and Ralls, 1995) adds that the more complexity facing an organisation, concerning culture, the less willing the orgainisation is to implement technology on a wider basis. This may lead to greater opportunity costs by not adopting the latest techniques across various units, for fear that the results are uneven. Although global firms can benefit from global efficiencies, it is not always appropriate where technology is concerned. Nike for instance has a plant in Indonesia where labour costs are low and have access to better distribution channels and production costs are also low. (Samli, [1985]) argues that although there are benefits, consideration has to be given to the fact that labour skills are extremely low and training of employees will have to occur in order for them to do their job. On the other hand (Dougherty [1995]) suggests that the exchange of technology across national borders is essential. Ford not only transfers technology to foreign countries but also tries to learn from locals. The exchange of expertise and information among people from around the world assists in broadening perspectives and also assists research and development in transferring information between divisions successfully. This increases the key mass in RD so that organisations are able to attract better people. Innovation enables organisation to improve the quality of their output, enter new markets, try out new technologies and develop alternative applications for existing product categories. For organisations must adapt to changing competition, markets, and technologies.(Dougherty [1996]) (Venkatraman, MacMillian and McGrath, [1992]; Shane [1995]) suggest that innovation within global organisations may be hampered by cultural barriers. It is important not to block innovation by organisational rules or routines. Based on findings from Hofstedes cultural indices they suggest that cultural barriers may slow down transfer from one unit to another in a multinational organisation (Cox,[1991] argues that using cultural heterogeneity leads to greater innovation and more efficient marketing strategies for the different types of customers worldwide. He also suggests that because employees come from different backgrounds different perspectives are achieved, therefore creating improvements. (Mejia Palich, [1997]) also argue that heterogeneous teams function better than homogenous ones because of cultural differences learning experiences. On the other hand (Keller and Chinta [1990]; Snodgrass and Sekaran [1989]) argue that expertise and technical know-how are more difficult to develop when differences in cultural backgrounds exist. They state that this plays a major role in the transfer of technology between business units. [Empirical research by Davidson and McFetridge [1985]) also supports this belief that cultural relatedness enhances the flow of technological know how and the sharing among business units of a global organisation. MARKETING According to (Barlett [1996]; Beamish, Killing, Lecraw and Morrison [1994]) they are all in agreement that distinct consumer preferences will emerge due to cultural differences. This is expected to lead to the requirement of customisation of the marketing mix and product strategies. This suggests that production in one country may not suit production in another. High Uncertainty Avoidance Countries like to buy reliable, predictable goods. In addition to this, although there are divisions (Takeuchei Porter 1986) believe culturally related countries such as (America Canada) can more successfully share market activities and knowledge than those in culturally unrelated countries such as (America India). With the capacity to cross-sell products in culturally related markets, which reduces information gathering expenses and the uncertainty linked with targeting markets that are totally unrelated. Culturally related countries may find it beneficial to share knowledge regarding market research, sales forces service networks, distribution and advertising, therefore lowering costs. However, (Alder, P [1987]) argues that this kind of sharing is a lot more demanding, suggesting that the differences are not just language but that it is a matter of values, mind set and market reactions Take for instance the advertising campaign concerning the Marlboro Man. This campaign suited America as society is seen as individualist according to (Hofstede 1984). On the other hand, this campaign was a failure in Columbia because society is seen as Collectivist This now leads on the issue of marketing standardisation. This issue has been defined by (Banerjee, [1994]} as the determination of common communication objectives and budget whereas (Wills Ryan, [1997]) includes in there definition creative and media decisions involving the whole corporation. The issues of marketing standardisation and global marketing have usually been considered in terms of the reliability of the marketing mix elements for a company that enters numerous international markets. Since the 1960s, standardisation of international marketing strategy has been the focus of many studies (Elinder, [1961]; Buzzell, 1968; Jain, [1989]), It is still unclear however, whether it is done for the savings linked with standardisation or for the maximisation of the firms products, but the underlying principle of standardisation is to maintain a global image. Rau Preble, [1987] has carried out considerable research on this topic. Multinational Corporations are faced with difficulties when deciding standardisation of advertising across different countries. (Boddewyn, [1991]; Jain, [1989]). According to (Solberg, [2000]) there are two important organisational factors that relate to the degree of standardisation in international markets. Firstly, market knowledge at the level of headquarters (HQ) of local market conditions and secondly HQs control of subsidiaries i.e. (Influence on their marketing decisions). In addition (Martenson, [1987]; Rau Preble, [1987]; Tai Wong, [1998] suggested that MNCs needed to have a certain degree of control over their subsidiaries in order to implement decisions. (Hite Frazer, [1998]) state that, MNCs with a well-known and global image i.e. (Coca cola) tend to apply more control over their subsidiaries in order to maintain the image of the corporation or product (Hill James, [1990]) especially if perceptions of consumers are similar across countries. (Britt, [1974], Jain, [1989]). However, in the case of Matsushita in the electronic industry this was not the case as each subsidiary had a separate identity, which resulted in major success. This then leads on to market development. (Jain, [1989]; Duncan Ramaprasad, [1995]) suggest if similar levels of market development are achieved in both home and host countries marketing standardisation would favour MNCs. However, this would depend on the competitive positions in home and host countries of the MNC. Higher degrees of marketing standardisation may be adapted (Jain, [1989]; Henzler Rall, [1986]) if similarities prevailed in the competitive context that would allow HQs to make easier decisio ns regarding competition and to enhance control over the subsidiary and to adopt more beneficial standardisation strategies. (Doz and Prahalad, [1984] Michell Bright, [1995]). STAFFING AND TRAINING As multinational firms globalise they must learn to co-ordinate efforts among an increasingly culturally diverse workforce and environment. Nowadays people tend to be very defensive of their cultural identity and caution by others has to be taken so that insult is not caused. Through the years success of Japanese organisations global strategies has encouraged American firms. Although many point out the advantages, cultural diversity may leads to conflict, misunderstanding and lack of cohesion. Organisations are becoming more alert of the importance of diversity to their business activities and acknowledge that by recruiting, promoting and training a diverse range of individuals in the long-term are a major asset to the organisation in reaching out to their customers. (Tung, [1993]) states that cross cultural training process, helps in the development of building relations between individuals or groups, especially individuals/groups with diverse cultural backgrounds. (Welch [1998]) defines cultural training as any form of guided experience helping people to live and work more contentedly in another culture. Such training encourages understanding about differences and acceptance of the multicultural work environment and helps create and retain effective work teams and expertise in dealing with multicultural management (Hartenian, [2000]) describes the multi-cultural workforce as a workforce that excludes no one, from top-level management to low-level employees. He sees the multi-cultural workforce has one of the main opportunities for an organisation. Take for instance the IBM perspective. IBM have established research labs around the world because the issue of a globally diverse workforce is of the highest importance. This in turn allows the organisaton to gather ideas from people who experience different economies and cultures Although multi-cultural workforces are beneficial to organisations in relation to performance and profitability, they can be very hard to manage. According to (Hill, [92]) the key to managing multi-cultural workforces is the realisation that majority and minority cultures do not always share experiences. To solve this managers can adapt different strategies such as: developing programmes that promote awareness of different cultures, recognise common links among different ethnic groups and express concerns and confusions. (Hill [1992]) believes that if organisations use these strategies, economic benefits will be reaped. This may be easier said than done, (Harisis Kleiner, [1993]) argue that the implementation of such workforces are extremely difficult. They say that not only within American society and businesses but on a world wide scale there are widespread barriers. Such barriers include unwritten rules and double standards for success which are often unknown to women and minorit ies, stereotypes and their associated assumptions and lack of communication about differences. In global organisations it is essential that effective cross cultural training occurs in order to help individuals obtain both the knowledge and the tools needed to reduce misunderstandings and improper actions (Black Mendenhall [1990]) suggest that multi-cultural training provides individuals with greater self confidence and decreased narrow-mindedness about people from diverse cultures. In addition (Barlett and Ghoshal [1990]) also pointed out that establishing a multicultural training programme improved the companys ability to operate more efficiently in different cultural environments. Although many multicultural training programmes are undertaken to enhance cultural diversity they are not always successful. According to (Woods [1992]) a systematic approach should be taken towards training. (Woods [1992]) established a four step cycle: Firstly was to specify certain job task of individuals and assess the needs of the corporate culture. Secondly is the identification of training objectives. Thirdly was the establishment of the proper training content in which the following was used; sensitivity training, cultural awareness and orientation programs. In addition (Cox, [1993]; Gamio Sneed, [1992]; Tung, [1993]) introduced the communication competency program. In the final stage (Milkovich Boudreau [1991]) stated that training programs need to verify whether the training is successful in junior members of staffs performances at work. The cycle used was concerned with the effectiveness of the training, however, (Mendenhall Oddou [1986[ Tung [1981]) found factors that deterred individuals. These included lack of specialised trainers, cost and perceived lack of usefulness. Research carried out by (Gamio Sneed [1992]) found that the deterrence factors are of major importance. Take for instance the catering industry. Mangers in restaurants may blame high staff turnover rates on lack of multi-cultural training, therefore using these rates as the reason to ignore the need for training programs. (Jackson [1991]) believes that heterogeneity among team members contributes to high turnover rates within organisations. Researchers may find that the relationship between cultural diversity and staff turnover is of major importance to all organisations. According to (Kossek Lobel [1996]) the topic of diversity has raised considerable attention over the past decade and is a must for all businesses. In todays business world global leadership is critical not only for global strategies but for ensuring cultural diversity, which involves in depth knowledge from business ethics to cultural motivatiors. Organisations are going global because of slow growth in domestic markets and to capitalise on areas such as marketing, research and development, training, technology, production and many more factors. Organisation are fast realising the importance of diversity. Cultural diversity is the idea that cultural identities should not be ignored but in contrast be maintained and respected. The literature which is going to be presented in this paper will examine four main issues. In my opinion these issues are of major importance for global firms. The first issue is the strategies which global firms adapt follw . Secondly, the concept of Technology and Innovation. This section will in detail provide literature from researchers who believe global firms benefit from cultural diversity in this field. It will examine how technology is changing the business world. Thirdly, the marketing issue. This section will provide relevant literature on how global firms can benefit in relation to standardisation of marketing and how advertising campaigns are perceived by different countries. Lastly, the concept of Staffing and Training. This in my view is one of the most important issues. Global organisations can have all the capital in the world but with out the correct leadership and staff, failure is certain. This topic will in detail will put forward the notion of cross-cultural training and will examine whether or not this is a good idea for global organisations. All the topics mentioned above will have cases for and against by the relevant researchers in each field. I feel this is necessary in order to establish a good understanding of the literature review I am conducting. According to (Tallman Jiatao [1996]) diversity has gone from being a moral/legal issue are both into a business necessity.